Flipped learning and Existentialism

This blog is written as a part of Flipped Learning given by Dr. Dilip Barad sir, Department of English, MKBU on Existentialism. For this task sir has given us 10 videos and and some web resources which we have to consider while doing the task.

There are some 

What is flipped learning?

Flipped learning is an instructional strategy that reverses the traditional model of classroom-based learning. In flipped learning, students are introduced to new content or concepts outside of class, usually through online videos or other resources, and class time is dedicated to discussion, collaboration, and hands-on activities.

Advantages of Flipped Learning:

Personalized Learning: Flipped learning enables students to learn at their own pace and in their preferred learning style. They can pause, rewind or review the video lectures according to their needs. This personalized learning experience can help students to understand the material better and achieve better learning outcomes.

Active Learning : In flipped learning, class time is spent on interactive and collaborative activities rather than on lecturing. This active learning approach helps students to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills by working on projects, discussions, and other hands-on activities.

Flexibility : Flipped learning provides flexibility to students and teachers alike. Students can access the material online anytime and from anywhere. Teachers can design their class activities and assessments according to the needs of the students, and can adapt the course content to suit the pace of individual learners.

Disadvantages of Flipped Learning:

Technology Dependence : Flipped learning relies heavily on technology, such as internet connectivity, access to devices, and audio/visual equipment. Any technical difficulties can impact the delivery of the content and disrupt the learning experience for students.

Reduced Face-to-Face Interaction: Flipped learning may reduce the amount of face-to-face interaction between students and teachers. Although there may be some interaction during class time, there may be less opportunity for students to ask questions and receive immediate feedback from their teachers.

Student Accountability: Flipped learning requires students to take responsibility for their own learning. They must be motivated to watch the video lectures and come prepared to class ready to participate in the activities. If students are not engaged or accountable, flipped learning may not be effective

The Absurd doesn't frighten me, because form a more elevated point of view, I consider everything in life to be absurd. -Albert Camus

3. Myth of Sisyphus 

 Myth of Sisyphus is an essay written by the French existentialist philosopher Albert Camus, first published in 1942. In this essay, Camus examines the concept of the "absurd," which he defines as the conflict between the human desire for meaning and the meaningless and irrational world in which we live.

Camus uses the story of Sisyphus, the ancient Greek mythological figure, as an allegory for the human struggle with the absurd. Sisyphus is condemned by the gods to push a boulder up a hill, only to watch it roll back down again, for all eternity. Camus argues that this is a perfect illustration of the human condition: we are all engaged in a meaningless and endless struggle with no hope of resolution.

Despite this, Camus suggests that there is a way to live meaningfully in the face of the absurd. He argues that we must embrace the absurd and rebel against it, rather than trying to escape it through religion or other forms of transcendence. By embracing the absurd, we can achieve a sense of freedom and authenticity that allows us to live fully in the present moment.

Camus concludes the essay with the assertion that the struggle against the absurd is the only thing that gives life meaning. By embracing the struggle and finding joy in the effort, we can live a life that is worth living, despite its inherent meaninglessness.

 Philosophical Suicide: By this method, people escape from the ABSURD.

One much try to make themselves happy and to make life meaningful.

Video 7 . Existentialists see a benefit to facing up to our mortality. 

There is the biggest thing in human life and that is Acceptance.It can be connected with each aspect of life whether it can be Time,Truth, Reality or the Self.

Accepting ourselves for who we are, including our flaws and imperfections, can increase self-awareness and self-compassion. When we accept ourselves, we are able to be honest with ourselves about our strengths and limitations, and take steps to grow and improve.

Another line of Video 7...

"Existence precedes essence" an idea put forth by Jean Paul Sartre in a lecture titled " Is Existentialism a humanism?" 

Sartre's concept of existence preceding essence has important implications for morality and ethics. If there is no predetermined essence or nature to human beings, then there can be no objective morality or values. Each individual must create their own values and determine what is right and wrong based on their own subjective experience.

The phrase "existence precedes essence" means that humans do not have a predetermined nature or essence, but rather create their own essence through their choices and actions. This concept emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility in shaping our lives and the meaning we give to them.

Is Existentialism a Humanism?

French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, argues that existentialism is a human-centered philosophy that emphasizes the importance of individual freedom, responsibility, and choice.

Sartre's essay begins with the assertion that existentialism is a form of humanism, which he defines as a philosophy that "makes human beings the center of all values and posits that human beings are the source of their own meaning and purpose."

Sartre argues that humans are fundamentally free and that we must take responsibility for our actions and choices. We cannot blame our circumstances, upbringing, or other external factors for our decisions. Instead, we must recognize that we have the power to shape our own lives and determine our own values and meaning.

In contrast to traditional philosophical views, which hold that humans have a predetermined nature or essence, Sartre argues that we are radically free beings, with no essence or nature except that which we create for ourselves. This means that we are responsible for our own lives and must take responsibility for our choices.

Sartre also emphasizes the importance of authenticity, or being true to oneself. He argues that we must reject external values and beliefs and create our own sense of meaning and purpose. This requires a willingness to confront the absurdity and meaninglessness of existence, and to embrace the freedom and responsibility that comes with it.

In summary, Sartre's essay "Existentialism is Humanism" argues that existentialism is a human-centered philosophy that emphasizes the importance of individual freedom, responsibility, and choice. It emphasizes the importance of authenticity and the rejection of external values and beliefs in favor of creating our own sense of meaning and purpose.

Questions asked in Google Classroom 

1. How many Negative effects are of Existential and an Absurd way of looking at Life? 

2.How can one apply existential thoughts in the Contemporary time and which advantages are there of Existential thinking?

Thank You.

The Birthday Party

This blog is a response to the task given by Yesha ma'am, as we are having 'The Birthday Party' by Harold Pinter in our syllabus of MA at the Department of English, MKBU.

What is the Comedy of Menace?

Comedy of menace is a subgenre of comedy that was developed in the mid-twentieth century. It was first identified by the British theater critic, Harold Hobson, who coined the term in 1951 to describe the plays of playwright Harold Pinter. The Comedy of Menace is characterized by its use of tension and unease, as well as its exploration of the darker aspects of human nature.

The hallmark of the Comedy of Menace is its focus on the disintegration of social norms and the breakdown of communication between individuals. It often depicts seemingly harmless situations that escalate into something menacing and threatening. This subgenre is characterized by its exploration of themes such as power, identity, and alienation.

One of the key features of the Comedy of Menace is its use of language. The characters often speak in a cryptic and enigmatic manner, leaving the audience uncertain about their true intentions. The dialogue is often sparse and disjointed, with long pauses and silences that add to the tension.

The settings in the Comedy of Menace are typically confined and claustrophobic, with the action taking place in a single room or a small, enclosed space. This serves to intensify the sense of unease and discomfort.

The characters in the Comedy of Menace are often flawed and morally ambiguous. They are driven by their own desires and agendas, which can lead them to act in unpredictable and sometimes dangerous ways. They often struggle with issues of identity and power, as they try to assert themselves in an uncertain and threatening world.

Overall, the Comedy of Menace is a subgenre of comedy that explores the darker aspects of human nature through its use of tension, language, and setting. It challenges the audience to confront uncomfortable truths about the human experience and the nature of social interaction.

The phrase “comedy of menace” as a standalone description inspires both positive and negative feelings. Comedy is used during a dangerous situation to cause audiences to draw judgments about a particular character or communication. The words used are the focus of often powerful stories that create conflicting emotions from its audience. The title “Comedy of Menace” immediately brings contradictions to mind, because comedy is generally something that makes people laugh, and the word "menace" implies something threatening. Quite literally, then, this phrase involves laughing at an ominous situation.

Don't Comedy and Menace Contradict Each Other?

Where comedy represents the humorous, the amusing and the laughable, Menace can be defined as a 'Threatening quality, tone or atmosphere' where comedy is produced form incongruity, the bizarre, the out of place, menace is often produced from nothing. The longer nothing happens, the more anticipate something happening, the greater the intention, anxiety and fear!

The Birthday party is ostensibly a comedy of Menace as it mixed the comic Absurdity in the form of Meg's antics and the almost slapstick MaCann - Goldberg partnership with the pitiful existence of the former and the constant threat of violence presented by the latter.

 

The term comedy of menace points out that menace is secondary to comedy, the light, comic treatment of grave themes like oppression and cruelty in the play makes it more unsettling for the viewer alike. Thus it is arguable that the comedy in the play heightened not only the menace but also Printer's criticism of political authority as frighteningly abusive and violent.

The Menace Resulting from the Reference to the “Job”

The amusing dialogue between Stanley and Lulu is followed by a dialogue between Goldberg and McCann who now arrives at the boardinghouse. This dialogue again produces a feeling of menace in the hearts of the audience. McCann is already feeling nervous, but Goldberg asks him to relax, and to enjoy his "holiday" here. Says Goldberg: “McCann, what are you so nervous about? Pull yourself together.” McCann is feeling worried about the job which Goldberg and he have to execute here. He would like to know what exactly the nature of this job is because he is ignorant of it while Goldberg has all the details. McCann's anxiety about the job makes the audience anxious too. McCann says that, if Goldberg tells him what kind of a job they have come here to do, he would ask no further questions. Goldberg does not disclose to him the nature of the job but assures him that no harm will come to either of them in the course of their execution of the job. The audience naturally suspects that some criminal act has to be performed by these two men.

Our Anxiety, Followed Immediately by Amusement

Meg now returns from her shopping. Goldberg questions her not only about her husband but more particularly about the lodger she has already got in the boarding house. Goldberg's inquisitiveness about this lodger, namely Stanley, again gives rise to a feeling of anxiety in our minds because we begin to feel that the job which these two men have come to accomplish may have something to do with Stanley. But just when we are feeling a bit anxious about Stanley, Meg amuses us greatly by giving to Goldberg a garbled version of what Stanley had told her about the two concerts. Meg's muddle-headedness makes her version a funny one. The pun on the word “tip here is particularly amusing.

A Threat to His Security, Suspected by Stanley

After Goldberg and McCann have retired to the room which Meg has assigned to them upstairs, Stanley, who had slipped away from the house, now returns. Stanley is very anxious to know who the two men are, why they have come here, how long they will stay, what their names are, and so on. Stanley’s curiosity about the two men not only reveals his own feeling of anxiety but creates anxiety in our minds also. Evidently Stanley feels that the two men who have come to stay here might threaten his security. While talking to Goldberg, Meg had told him that it was Stanley’s birthday whereupon Goldberg had suggested that a birthday party should be held at night in Stanley’s honour. Meg had accepted the proposal. Now Meg reminds Stanley that it is his birthday, and she gives him the birthday present which she had bought for him through Lulu. The birthday present turns out to be a boys drum. At first Stanley beats the drum gently and rhythmically, and we feel quite amused by his behaviour, but then he begins to beat it in a wild and irregular manner. He almost becomes savage in his beating of it, and it seems that he is under the influence of some demon. This wild drum-beating has its own share in producing a feeling of anxiety in our minds, though we do not understand what has upset Stanley so much. Act I closes at this point. This brief survey of Act I shows that there is ample comedy in it but that the comedy is accompanied by an under-current of menace.

Harold Pinter and the Comedy of Menace:

Harold Pinter (1930-2008) was an English playwright, screenwriter, actor, and director. He was one of the most important and influential British playwrights of the 20th century, and his works continue to be performed and studied today.

Harold Pinter is widely regarded as the foremost exponent of the Comedy of Menace. His plays are characterized by their use of tension, enigmatic dialogue, and exploration of power and identity. Pinter's plays often depict seemingly ordinary situations that gradually unravel into something menacing and threatening.

Pinter's first play, "The Room" (1957), set the tone for the Comedy of Menace. It was followed by other plays such as "The Birthday Party" (1958), "The Caretaker" (1960), and "The Homecoming" (1964), which cemented Pinter's reputation as a master of this subgenre. Pinter's plays often feature dysfunctional families or groups of people trapped in a confined space, such as a room or a house, where power struggles and manipulation ensue.

One of the key features of Pinter's plays is his use of language. Pinter's characters often speak in a disjointed and enigmatic manner, leaving the audience uncertain about their true intentions. The dialogue is often characterized by long pauses and silences, which can be just as meaningful as the spoken words. Pinter's characters also often engage in power struggles and verbal duels, using language as a tool to gain an advantage over one another.

Pinter's plays also feature settings that are claustrophobic and oppressive, with the action taking place in a single room or a small, enclosed space. This serves to intensify the sense of unease and discomfort for the audience.

Comedy and Menace in the Cross-Examination of Stanley.

Then Goldberg appears on the scene. In a reminiscent mood he talks about the girl with whom he used to go out on Fridays when he was a young man. But Stanley, feeling worried about his own safety, adopts an aggressive posture towards the two men and tells them that there is no accommodation in this boarding-house for them and that they must leave. When McCann brings the bottles of whiskey, Stanley says that this boarding house does not have the license to serve drinks or to permit drinking. Stanley's aggressiveness, however, proves absolutely ineffective because Goldberg completely ignores Stanley's plea. Now begins a real conflict, a conflict which portends danger. Goldberg wants Stanley to sit down but Stanley refuses to comply. After a good deal of argument Stanley does sit down but only after McCann has sat down first. In the course of this argument there is a hint of violence when McCann says that he would "kick the shit" out of Stanley. Stanley is then subjected by the two men to a grueling cross-examination. This situation is the most dramatic in the whole play, and it is also perhaps the most striking example of the mingling of comedy and menace. The questions asked by the two men are such as to amuse us greatly but at the same time these questions are tantamount to threats and bullying. The questions are amusing because they are a kind of hotch-potch, having no connection at all with one another, and in some cases mutually contradictory. And they are menacing because singly as well as collectively they constitute an arraignment of Stanley. Here are a few selected questions creating this two-fold effect of mirth and fear on us:

“Why did you kill your wife?

Why did you never get married?

Webber! Why did you change your name?

Is the number 846 possible or necessary?

Why don't you pay the rent?

What about Ireland?

Why did the chicken cross the road?

Chicken? Egg? Which came first?

What makes you think you exist?”

The Menace, Heightened

Then the birthday party begins. There is plenty of fun and frolic. But Stanley sits silent and still, after the terrible ordeal through which he has been as a result of the interrogation and the bullying. Perhaps Stanley is also thinking at this time of what might come next. Blind man's buff follows. Everybody seems to be enjoying the game but, when there is a blackout, Stanley tries to strangle Meg and, after being pushed away by Goldberg and McCann, he tries to rape Lulu. The two persecutors then advance threateningly towards him, and here menace becomes most pronounced. Act II ends at this point. Act II is thus rich in comedy but it also bristles with threats of violence. The cross-examination of Stanley is the high point of the menace in this Act, but the menace becomes even more serious by implication when Goldberg and McCann advance threateningly towards Stanley after it has been discovered that he had tried to rape Lulu. Thus this Act, which opened with tension between Stanley and McCann, ends with a much greater tension between Stanley and the two intruders.

Conclusion:

A comedy of menace is a play in which the laughter of the audience in some or all situations is immediately followed by a feeling of some impending disaster. The audience is made aware of some menace in the very midst of its laughter. The menace is produced throughout the play from potential or actual violence or from an underlined sense of violence throughout the play. The actual cause of menace is difficult to define: it may be because, the audience feels an uncertainty and insecurity throughout the play.

The Birthday Party and Look Back in Anger perfectly reveal the individual and social problems and doubts that Great Britain was moving through during the post-war era. Both these two famous plays indicate the spirit of times and become vehicle or instrument for dramatic action.

Thank you .

Indian Poetics

This blog is a response to the task given by Dilip sir as a part of thinking activity because we are having Indian theories and criticism in our syllabus of M.A at Department of English,MKBU.

Introduction 

Indian poetics refers to the study and analysis of literature, particularly poetry and drama, in ancient India. It is also known as Sanskrit poetics because it is primarily based on the texts written in Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Indian poetics has had a profound impact on literary theory and practice, not only in India but also in other parts of the world, including the West.

The earliest Indian text on poetics is the Natyashastra, written by Bharata Muni in the second century BCE. The Natyashastra is a comprehensive treatise on drama, covering everything from the construction of the stage to the acting techniques of the performers. It also includes a detailed analysis of the various elements of drama, such as plot, character, dialogue, and music. The Natyashastra is considered one of the most important texts on poetics in India and has had a significant influence on the development of Indian drama and theatre.

Another important text on Indian poetics is the Kavya Prakasha, written by Mammata in the eleventh century CE. The Kavya Prakasha is a treatise on poetry and literary criticism, focusing on the analysis of various poetic devices and techniques. It provides a detailed analysis of the various forms of poetry, such as the epic, the lyric, and the drama. The Kavya Prakasha is considered one of the most important texts on poetics in India and has had a significant influence on the development of Indian poetry.

Indian poetics places great emphasis on the use of language in poetry and drama. It has developed a highly sophisticated system of metrics, or "chandas," to measure the rhythm and structure of verse. The use of metrics is considered essential in Indian poetry and is closely linked to the concept of "rasa," or aesthetic experience. According to Indian poetics, a work of art is meant to evoke a particular emotional response or "rasa" in the audience.

Overall, Indian poetics is a rich and complex tradition that has had a profound impact on the development of literature, particularly in India. Its influence can be seen in the works of contemporary Indian writers and in the literary traditions of other cultures around the world.

Indian poetics, also known as Sanskrit poetics, has had a significant impact on English literature and language. The ancient Indian tradition of poetics, as articulated in works such as the Natyashastra, has influenced Western literary theory and practice in a number of ways.

One of the most important ways in which Indian poetics has impacted English literature is through the idea of the "rasa" or aesthetic experience. According to Indian poetics, a work of art is meant to evoke a particular emotional response or "rasa" in the audience. This concept has been influential in the development of Western literary theory, particularly in the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Schiller, who developed the idea of "aesthetic education" based on the notion of rasa.

In addition to the concept of rasa, Indian poetics has also had an impact on English language and literary practice through its emphasis on language itself. Indian poetics places great emphasis on the use of language in poetry and drama, and has developed a highly sophisticated system of metrics, or "chandas," to measure the rhythm and structure of verse. This emphasis on language and metrics has been influential in the development of English language and literature, particularly in the use of metrics such as iambic pentameter and in the work of poets such as T.S. Eliot, who was greatly influenced by Indian poetics.

Rasa is created only because of Vibhav , Anubhav and Vyabhicharibhava. VIBHAV is just like pilar of it and because of it Bhvak feels Rasa.Bharatmuni describes 33 Sancharibhava in Natyasastra.

Vibhav : Emotion arise because of Vibhav

Anubhav : Reaction of Bhavak

Sancharibhav : Temporary emotions like anger and happiness 

Sthayibhav : Permanent emotions like Love and Sorrow 

 Bharatmuni explained nine Rasa in Natyasastra.

 According to critic Mohan Thamps...

“ Majority of the traditionalist; considers that nine rasas are enough to cope with infinite varity of literary production.”

Bharatmuni has mentioned these and Rasa. He elaborated states for each its colour , diety , the vibhav , anubhav and sancharibhav and how they should be acted.

Overall, Indian poetics has had a profound impact on the development of English literature and language, influencing everything from the theory of aesthetics to the use of metrics in poetry. Its legacy continues to be felt in contemporary literature and language, and its importance as a source of inspiration and influence remains as strong today as it has ever been

2. Alamkara School :

Bhamaha is the first alamkara poetician . In ch-2 and ch-3 of Kavyalamkara , he describes 35 figures of speech.

            Bhamaha talks of the pleasure of multiplicity of meaning inherent in certain alamkaras such as Arthantatanyasa, Vibhavana and Samasokti, other those who continued the tradition are Dandin , udbhata ,Rudrata and Vamana. Finally , in Anandvardhana , alamkara was sought to integrated with Dhvani and Rasa.

           It is a figure of speech external to poetry or is it an integral part of conceptualization and of the way the poet visualizes.

Example of Metaphor :

“See how the moonlight sleeps on the bank.”

 Mammta also did the detailed discussion of Alamkara into Kavyapraksh Ullas -10. We feel Almakara in poetry but can’t see. Alamkara is the supporting part of poetry . It is auxilural factors to poetry. The categories of alamkara have been classified by different poeticians into different kinds of systems.

        Rudrata divides all alamkaras into two types :

1. Phonetic Form ( Sabdalamkara)

2. Meaning Form ( Arthalamakara)

Ruyyaka classified alamkara into seven classes on the basis of their meaning.

 

1. Sadsya

2. Virodha

3. Srnkhalabadha

4. Tarkanyaya

5. Lokanyaya

6. Kavyanyaya

7. Gudhartha Pratiti

It is only such Alamkaras as lend themselves easily to the development of Rasa that should fine a proper place in poetry.

Mammata envmerates sixty –one figures and groups them into seven types as...

1. Upama ( Simile)

2. Rupaka ( Metaphore)

3. Aprastuta Prasamsa ( Indirect decription)

4. Dipaka ( Stringed figures)

5. Vyatreka ( Dissimilitude)

6. Virodha ( Contradiction)

7. Samuccaya (Concatenation)

Bharata’s original four to sixty –one distinguished by Mammata .This taxonomy is not mere ingenuity; it represents global and local taxonomies , a refined analysis and classification of what ultimhately are modes of perception. The different classificatory systems can be seen to be based on the following parameters.

1. Objects Compared

2. Objects with which compared

3. Value of Figures

4. Semantic basis, such as simplicity

5. Grammar

6. Coherence with known facts

1. Upama

-Damayati is as beautiful as the Moon

2. Rupaka   - Her voice is music to their ears.

Riti School :  Riti is a theory of language of literature. Though it is described for the first time in Bhartmuni’s Natyasastra itself under the rubric of Vrtti. It is Vamana who developed it into a theory as the theory of “ Vishista Padracana” .Riti is a formation of or arrangement of marked inflected constructions .

        Two other words used for riti are Marga and Vrtti.Dandin uses the term Marga and talks of two Margas. Mammata designates the different modes as Riti.

    “Every writer has own style to write with own originality.”

Vamana lays down in clear terms; ‘Ritiratma Kavyasya’- Riti is the soul of poetry and working out this figurative description he points out that the word and its sense constitute the body of which the soul is the “Riti.”

        Riti correlate with… Themes , Effect on the viewers, Sentiments. Bharata in Natyasastra has all the three in mind in his discussion of Vrttis: 

· Kaisiki

· Bharati

· Sattavati

· Arbhatti

“Style is a man.”

Dhvani School : 

The theory proposed in Dhavnyaloka by Anabdvardhana is known as the name of “ Dhvani”. ‘Dhvnyaloka’ itself a huge compendium of poetry and poetics styles. Dhvani means..

“The suggestive quality of poetic language.”

Anandvardhana established element Dhvani as the soul of poetry . In Anandvardhana’s view it is this structure , which is the total effect of the suggestive quality of language that distinguishes poetry from the ordinary usage language. His theory , appropriately exerted an abiding influence on the succeeding generations of theoreticians in India.

Dhvani; Structure of poetic meaning soul of poetry is suggestion, some would ever its non- existence, some would regard it.

“Dhavnyaloka’ is the mile stone Grantha of Indian poetics.”

    Anandvardhana saw the essence of poetic meaning in the suggested or implied sense rather than in the literal meaning of the words of the poem.In the end of the poetry- Theory of suggestion prevailed and together with the classification of poetic en\motions formed the key-stone of almost all the important works on poetics after 12th century.

To define Dhvani, it is very necessary that we have language and language plays with us through words. Bhavas are more important to feel poetry, enjoy poetry than any other things.In “ Dhvanyaloka”, Anandvardhana has presented a structural analysis of indirect literary meaning.

According to V.S.Seturaman , 

“That kind of poetry, where in the meaning renders itself secondary or the word render itself meaning secondary and suggests the implied meaning is designed by the learned as ‘Dhvani’ or’ Suggestive Poetry.’

 Anandvardhana says that this term is taken directly from the grammarians , just as the sounds of utterance reveals the integral linguistic sign so also a good poem with its sound , as well as reveals over and above the literal sense, a charming sense which has great aesthetic valley considered as suggestive poetry.

 Moreover he says that beautiful ideas in poetry are of two kinds:     

1. Literal

2. Implied

 The grammarians define “Dhvani” with the use of “ Sphotta” theory. Briefly stated ‘Sphotta’ is a ‘linguistic’ sign in its aspect of meaning. 

 Dhvani theory is a theory of meaning, of symbolism , and thid principle leads to the poetry  suggestion being accepted as the highest kind of poetry.Anandvardhana integrates Rasa theory with his Dhvani theory . Dhvani is the method , the means , for achieving or evoking Rasa , which is the effect of suggestion.

Abhidha : Direct meaning

Lakshana: We have direct meaning but we have to take another one, which is not that direct 

Vyanjana : There is the existence of direct meaning yet we have to use another meaning of word.

Example :

“ I would be rather born as tree, stanted and shorn of leaves in the forest that as a generous but poor person in this world of men.”

                The expressed ideas in this example convey the uselessness of the life of a person who is generous but poor and praise of the life of a bare ,stanted tree suggestively , however comparison is intended between the above mentioned tree and the person to bring out the idea that such a man deserves for more pity than the free in the vegetable kingdom. This type of distinction between two objects described is called Vyatiraka or contrast and than fancied contrast between the tree and the man is suggested here.

“ Poetry which does not contain any suggested sense can not be considered as good poetry, however charming the expressed sense may be.”

       

In poetry , of course we see the communication of a new meaning by the agency of Ironic tone.

“ A good poet should be extremely careful so far as that sentiment is concerned.”

       

        The Dhvani theory of meaning came in for criticism at hands of Nyaya and Mimamsa thinkers.The opponents said that…………….. 

1. Dhvani is inonexistent.

2. Dhvani is a product of inference and is to be include under Lksana .

3. Dhvani is something beyond the realm of words.

Dhvani is not Laksana. It can be evoked by an idea a figure of speech or even emotion.

E.g.

 

Even in the absence of Laksana , the word Ganga can suggest Purity and Sanctity.

5.Vakrokti School :

           Kuntaka made Vakrokti a full fledged theory of literariness. His definition of Vakrokti is …….

“ Both words and meanings marked by artistic turn of speed.”

        It claims that the characteristic property of literary language is its ‘markedness.’

                Kuntaka is known as the originator of Sanskrit literary theory. Vakrokti is a theory of poetry which perceives poetry essentially in terms of the language of its expression. It sees the poetic language as language of metaphor and suggestive communication.

        The Sahitya or mutual coherence between word and meaning in respect of beauty is nothing but a unique poetic usage , involving neither more nor less than exact form of word and meaning required to make the whole beautiful.

        “ Vakrokti turns into ‘Beauty’.”

       

        All things which is belonged to Nature is ‘Vakra.’

        Kuntaka classifies Vakrokti into six heads…………..

· In syllables , on their arrangements

· In the base substantives

· In inflected forms of substantives

· In sentences , including figure of speech

· In topics or section

· In the whole composition.

Kuntka incorporates Rasa , alamkara, Riti, and guna theories into his Vakrokti Sidhanta. Vakrokti was not was not discussed as as separately by later theorists but it has always been discussed as an important element. 

    Vakrokti theory is a useful framework for stylistic analysis of literature.

6. Aucitya School :

                       

                        Aucitya is harmony and in one aspect it is proportion between the whole and the parts between the chief and the subsidiary . This perfection is all the morals and beauty in art. At the final stage of its formation as a theory explaining the secrect of poetic appeal. Aucitya is stated to be the Jivita, life – birth of poetry.

                The theory of propriety or appropriatness claims that in all aspects of literary composition. There is the possibility of a perfect , the most appropriate choice of subject, of ideas of words , of devices.

        Ksemendra made aucitya the central elements of literarinmess . He defines aucitya as the property of an expression being an exact and appropriate analogue of the expressed.

                The concept of propriety with reference to custom, subject , character and sentiment recurs in almost all theorist and is often discussed in association with figures of speech , guna/dosa and rities.

        

        Ksemendra’s discussion of the principle of Aucitya is from the point of view of bith the writer and the reader and is articulated in its given cultural and philosophical context.

        Dhvani is Vyanjana , Rasa is a highway of opticism not only for Indian literary but also for the study of European literary , a sure and certain method.

        Emphasizing Rasa , one school accepts Dhvani or suggestion, while another school accept Rasa emphasizing Unnaya.

       

                Dhvani , the later says , is a sort of inference , a quick anticipatory way of inference. These three run after Aucitya , Gunas ,Alamkaras, and Ritis, these are emphasized in special  ways.

Thank You.